In these settings she has been responsible for overseeing a variety of personal and public health programs, developing strategic plans,. She has worked with and on behalf of many different groups of underserved populations, including the uninsured, the U. Mexico border population, as well as the Latino community broadly and communities of other ethnic minority groups.
Partida is also the founder and executive director for The Partida Group, a health-focused research and management consulting firm specializing in diverse populations. Her expertise lies in health promotion and disease prevention, particularly of cancer, through behavioral research and intervention. She has served on numerous advisory committees, including as chair of the National Cancer Advisory Board, and she currently serves on the Board of Directors of the American Family Life Assurance Corporation.
Rimer is also is associate editor of Preventive Medicine , and serves on the editorial boards and as a reviewer of numerous medical and health education journals. Rimer is co-editor of one of the most widely-used textbooks for public health students: Health Education and Health Behavior: Theory, Research and Practice with Drs. Karen Glanz and Francis Lewis. Rogers was also co-principal investigator of the Stanford Heart Disease Prevention Program, and he currently serves on the editorial board of the Journal of Health Communication.
The core of Dr. These interventions are designed particularly to be effective for low income, multiethnic populations, including blue-collar and service workers.
These behavioral interventions are embedded in the social context or environments in which people live. Her research has focused on a range of community settings, including worksites and labor unions. Sutton does innovative work in social marketing and effective consumer-based health communications, much of which has involved diverse or special populations. Department of Agriculture. As president of Sutton Social Marketing, she provides social marketing expertise to non-profit and advocacy groups, foundations, and government agencies to create successful communication programs for behavior change, and currently serves on the editorial board of The Social Marketing Quarterly.
Most recently, he has explored the implications for public health communication strategies emerging from research linking social inequality, social capital, and health inequality. Wallack has served as a consultant to numerous local, state, national, and international agencies, including the World Health Organization and the Office of Technology Assessment U. Congress , among others, and has testified before the U. Senate and House on the regulation of alcohol advertising.
He is a psychiatrist and health services researcher. We are what we eat. That old expression seems particularly poignant every time we have our blood drawn for a routine physical to check our cholesterol levels.
And, it's not just what we eat that affects our health. Whole ranges of behaviors ultimately make a difference in how we feel and how we maintain our health. Lifestyle choices have enormous impact on our health and well being.
This is why superhero play is so popular with older toddlers and preschoolers: They see a character they know being rewarded for their actions, doing things they can do, like stand up to injustice.
And why princesses are so popular amongst girls, they see a character they know, being rewarded for their actions, doing things they can do and this is now mercifully swinging from putting on pretty dresses and making goo-goo eyes at men to figuring out problems and solving them and being brave. When we work to build competency in our children; real genuine ability, we not only feel better about the fact that they can handle responsibilities and act appropriately, but they do too.
When they view themselves with self-efficacy, children take more appropriate risks and extend themselves in more positive ways in every aspect of life. They know they can do it. That changes their lens! This is once again why I feel so strongly about Natural and Logical Consequences. If we default to operant conditioning-so rewards and punishments, then our children have a lens that tells them that external forces are in control of their behaviour.
When we use Natural and Logical Consequences and we teach our kids to think critically, we turn it to internal forces. I do this because it benefits me.
It makes me feel good. We completely alter that reward lens. And that reward lens has such a huge impact on what our children learn from their influencers. It has such a massive impact on that self-efficacy lens. I hope by now that you can see where everything I teach is coming from. These theorists inform everything I teach. I teach parents of toddlers and preschoolers why their children are misbehaving and what to do about it without yelling, shaming, or using time-outs.
When not teaching parents about behaviour you can generally find me chasing around my two boys, reading cheesy romance novels, or hanging out with my own parents. Theories June 11, Early Childhood Theories: Albert Bandura. We want all of them to see examples of competence that they can imitate. So why is this important to know? Like this: Like Loading Share this Post:. Share on facebook. Share on pinterest. Share on twitter. The decisive difference between the two studies was the content of the modeled behavior: In the former study, children observed and learned to self-reinforce for performance in a game, whereas in the latter study, children observed models perform aggressive behaviors toward a doll, so ideas about sex-appropriateness or stereotyping played a role in the latter.
More recently, Weeks et al. A second source of similarity is age. With children who were low achieving in mathematics, Schunk and Hanson showed that peer models were more effective than adult models who were more effective than no models in enhancing self-efficacy and learning outcomes. With educable mentally retarded children, Barry and Overman also found peer models to be more effective. Other studies, however, have shown no differences due to similarity in age see also Weeks et al.
The model's perceived competence plays a role in that competent models lead to better learning than incompetent models, but as a standard for comparison or self-evaluation, equally competent models seem to be preferred see Schunk. This is also supported by the above-cited study by Bandura and Kupers : they found adult models to be more effective for children's observational learning than peers. Related to model competence, an important factor seems to be whether the model is a mastery model displaying faultless performance or a coping model whose performance includes errors that are corrected and expressions of uncertainty that is gradually reduced.
Schunk and Hanson found no differential effects of a peer coping or a peer mastery model both were better than an adult model, which was better than no model , but Schunk et al. Braaksma et al. The conditions differed in instruction, with one group being asked to focus on the weak model which model did less well? Explain briefly what this model did worse and the other on the good model which model did well?
Explain briefly what this model did well. They found that weak learners learned more from focusing on weak models, whereas better learners learned more from focusing on good models. George et al.
Participants who watched nonathletic models reported higher self-efficacy and extended their legs significantly longer than those watching athletic models sex of the model did not have an effect on either measure.
Related to the issue of model competence is the degree of difference in model and observer expertise. Naturally i. It has also been suggested that the level of abstraction of instructions provided by experts may pose problems for novices' understanding and that instructions provided by somewhat advanced individuals led to better task performance Hinds et al.
On the other hand, the higher level of abstraction in expert instructions seemed to be more beneficial for solving novel tasks i. Moreover, expert models might be more effective for advanced students to learn from, as they might be less bothered by the skipping of steps, as their own knowledge base is closer to that of the expert and they are more likely to know what the relevant aspects of performance are that they need to attend to cf.
Bandura Therefore, an interesting question for future research is whether the level of model expertise affects learning and whether it has differential effects depending on learner expertise. A study by Boekhout et al.
However, this is not a task where knowledge automation and abstraction plays a large role, so further research would be required with tasks in which experts might use more abstract terms than advanced students, such as, for instance, in recalling or reasoning about medical cases e.
Finally, an extreme form of model—observer similarity is attained in self-modeling, in which children watch edited videotapes of themselves performing the model behavior, which has proven highly effective and as effective as peer modeling in promoting academic and behavioral skills Schunk and Hanson ; for a review, see Hitchcock et al.
In modeling examples that consist of screen recordings with spoken text e. Kim found that similarity in competence also played an important role when students learned from an anthropomorphized pedagogical agent. Academically, strong students recalled more after working with a high-competent agent, while academically weak students profited more from a low-competent agent.
Therefore, in these kinds of examples, even when they show a didactical procedure, model—observer similarity may play a role as well. This should be further investigated and, if necessary, be taken into account in the design of the examples. Moreover, there are some design principles that multimedia research has shown to enhance perceived social presence and thereby lead to better learning: the personalization, voice, and image principles Mayer The personalization principle means that people learn more deeply when words in a multimedia presentation are in conversational rather than formal style e.
The image principle seems to suggest that visual presence of the model is not strictly necessary for learning to be effective, which seems to be good news for screen-recording modeling examples.
In fact, having the model present live or on video might have adverse effects on the learner's attention. On the one hand, eye tracking research has shown that our gaze allocation is socially directed, that is, we tend to follow another person's gaze which is often used in magic tricks to misdirect observers' attention; Kuhn et al. Finally, there are some guidelines from research on the effectiveness of animations that might be relevant for the design of screen recording or animated modeling examples.
Because the information in screen recordings or animated modeling examples is often transient, students' understanding might be compromised if they do not attend to the right information at the right time because it can be gone the next moment. When the verbal explanation provided by the model is not sufficient to guide students' attention to the right information at the right time, other means of doing so are available, such as cueing i.
The transience of information is also an important difference between worked examples and modeling examples. Worked examples generally provide learners with a complete overview of the procedure, whereas modeling examples may either build up that overview step by step i.
In case of the latter, the transience of the information requires learners to maintain each presented step in working memory while attending to the step that is currently being executed and processing them in relation to each other.
This is extremely cognitively demanding, especially for novice students, and might hamper learning e. Although he stresses that observational learning can occur without immediate imitation taking place, Bandura also indicates that giving students the opportunity to practice the behavior themselves in between observations of modeling examples may foster learning because practice allows them to note deficiencies in their own performance, which may increase their attention to those aspects during a future observation of a model's performance.
This is, in fact, the way in which the majority of studies on the worked example effect were designed: example—problem pairs were used, and these were shown to be more effective for learning than engaging in problem solving only Carroll ; Cooper and Sweller ; Kalyuga et al.
Studies on modeling examples have also implemented this principle e. Sweller and Cooper stated that engaging in solving a similar problem immediately after example study may be more motivating for students because it is more active than studying another example would be. As far as we know, however, there are no empirical data yet that support this suggestion. In line with the finding that imitation does not seem to be necessary for learning, worked examples research has demonstrated that studying examples only is also more effective for learning than engaging in problem solving only Nievelstein et al.
In fact, it can be questioned whether the opportunity to practice indeed has added value for learning: A recent study found that both examples only and example—problem pairs were more effective than problem solving and problem-example pairs, and there was no significant difference between examples only and example—problem pairs Van Gog et al.
Problem—example pairs allow for noting deficiencies in students' own performance, which may increase their attention to those aspects during example study, but in the study of Van Gog et al. A possible explanation is that students are very often unable to diagnose their own performance deficiencies for a review, see Bjork Their problem-solving conditions were given a worked example of the same problem as feedback when they did not succeed in solving a problem within a certain time or certain number of attempts.
Therefore, the example was identical to the problem students had just attempted to solve, which would allow students to pay attention to the exact steps that proved to be problematic for them. This suggests that those novice learners were not able to use the examples as feedback effectively, presumably because they were not able to accurately diagnose their own performance deficiencies.
The ability to do so seems to be related to one's knowledge of the tasks Dunning et al. This fits with the findings of Reisslein et al. In tutored problem solving, however, learners can request help immediately when they experience that they cannot solve a particular step, which is unproblematic for novices and, in this case, help consisting of annotated worked examples has been shown to be more efficient equal test performance achieved in less learning time than help consisting of hints Ringenberg and VanLehn An effective delivery strategy for cognitive tasks that takes into account the learner's developing knowledge of a task which, as described previously, affects the effectiveness of worked examples is the completion or fading strategy, in which completion problems with increasingly more steps for the learner to complete serve as a bridge between studying fully worked-out examples and problem solving for a review, see Renkl and Atkinson Reisslein et al.
Note that in motor learning, the effects of combinations of example study and practice may be very different. Shea et al. However, in a second experiment, they showed that combined alternating physical practice and observation was more effective for transfer than physical practice only. Weeks and Anderson compared the effects of viewing 10 video-based modeling examples before practice, viewing one before practice and the others during practice one every three attempts and viewing five before practice and the others during the first half of practice one every three attempts.
The latter group attained the highest scores, followed by the all prepractice group. Although random sequencing tends to increase cognitive load and decrease performance during training, it does lead to better learning and transfer outcomes, so this increase in cognitive load is due to processes that are germane or effective for learning.
This review, which was by no means exhaustive, has discussed studies on example-based learning conducted from a cognitive and social-cognitive perspective.
Table 1 provides an overview of the commonalities and differences between both lines of research that we discussed. What stands out is the wide variety of tasks, contexts, and learners for which example-based learning can be effectively applied. While this is certainly a strength because it shows that example-based learning is a widely applicable method, the heterogeneity in the kinds of examples used, the tasks for which they are used, and the learners who participate in the studies also make it difficult to draw definitive conclusions about what works, when, and for whom.
For example, in the studies by Braaksma et al. These studies differ on so many points, however, that it is hard to draw a conclusion about what might have caused the seemingly different findings.
We hope that future research on example-based learning will draw on both perspectives to identify and address novel research questions. Studies using examples consisting of screen captures may allow for a particularly powerful combination of both approaches. For example, an ideal procedure can be shown, and when steps are built up consecutively e. In addition, there are some design guidelines that have been identified in cognitive load and worked examples research that are relevant for the design of such examples as well e.
Finally, even though the model may not be visible in the screen capture, some characteristics identified in modeling examples, such as the model's age, sex, and performance e. Future studies from either perspective might also draw on the strong points of the other perspective. Boekhout et al. Anderson, J. Rules of the mind. Hillsdale: Erlbaum. Google Scholar. Acquisition of procedural skills from examples.
Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20 , — Article Google Scholar. The role of examples and rules in the acquisition of a cognitive skill. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23 , — Atkinson, R. Optimizing learning from examples using animated pedagogical agents.
Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70 , — Aiding transfer in statistical learning: Examining the use of conceptually-oriented equations and elaborations.
Transitioning from studying examples to solving problems: Effects of self-explanation prompts and fading worked-out steps. Ayres, P. Why goal-free problems can facilitate learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18 , — Making instructional animations more effective: A cognitive load approach. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21 , — Badets, A.
Error detection processes during observational learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 77 , — Baldwin, T. Effects of alternative modelling strategies on outcomes of interpersonal-skills training. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 77 , — Bandura, A. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Transmission of patterns of self-reinforcement through modeling.
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69 , 1—9. Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66 , 3— Barry, N. Comparison of the effectiveness of adult and peer models with EMR children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 82 , 33— Bjork, R. Assessing our own competence: Heuristics and illusions. Koriat Eds. Cognitive regulation of performance: Interaction of theory and application pp.
Cambridge: MITPress. Blandin, Y. On the cognitive basis of observational learning: Development of mechanisms for the detection and correction of errors. Cognitive processes underlying observational learning of motor skills. Blessing, S. How people learn to skip steps. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22 , — Boekhout, P. Example-based learning: Effects of model expertise in relation to student expertise. British Journal of Educational Psychology.
Braaksma, M. Observational learning and the effects of model-observer similarity. Observational learning and its effects on the orchestration of writing processes. Cognition and Instruction, 22 , 1— Carroll, W. Using worked out examples as an instructional support in the algebra classroom. Catrambone, R. Aiding subgoal learning: Effects on transfer. Generalizing solution procedures learned from examples.
Chandler, P. Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 8 , — Charlop, M. Learning through observation: The effects of peer modeling on acquisition and generalization in autistic children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 11 , — Chi, M. Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems.
Cognitive Science, 13 , — Observing tutorial dialogues collaboratively: Insights about human tutoring effectiveness from vicarious learning. Cognitive Science, 32 , — Collins, A. Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. Resnick Ed. Cooper, G. The effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer. Learning by imagining. Applied, 7 , 68— Couzijn, M.
Learning to write by observation of writing and reading processes: Effects on learning and transfer. Learning and Instruction, 9 , — Craig, S. Improving classroom learning by collaboratively observing human tutoring videos while problem solving. De Koning, B. Towards a framework for attention cueing in instructional animations: Guidelines for research and design.
Educational Psychology Review, 21 , — Decker, P. Effects of symbolic coding and rehearsal in behavior modeling training. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 65 , — Effects of different symbolic coding stimuli in behavior modeling training.
Personnel Psychology, 37 , — Driskell, J. Does mental practice enhance performance? The Journal of Applied Psychology, 79 , — Dunning, D. Why people fail to recognize their own incompetence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12 , 83— Feldon, D. The implications of research on expertise for curriculum and pedagogy. Educational Psychology Review, 19 , 91— Feltz, D. The effects of mental practice on motor skill learning and performance: A meta-analysis.
Journal of Sport Psychology, 5 , 25— Fouts, G. Effects of live and TV models on observational learning in introverted and extroverted children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 48 , — George, T. Effects of model similarity on self-efficacy and muscular endurance: A second look.
Ginns, P. When imagining information is effective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28 , — Functional anatomy of execution, mental simulation, observation, and verb generation of actions: A meta-analysis. Human Brain Mapping, 12 , 1— Effects of multiple solution methods in mathematics learning. Finding and fixing errors in worked examples: Can this foster learning outcomes?
Learning and Instruction, 17 , — Gullberg, M. Visual attention towards gesture in face-to-face interaction vs. Sowa Eds. Berlin: Springer Verlag. Chapter Google Scholar. Halpin, G. Observer characteristics related to the imitation of a creative model. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, , — Hilbert, T. Learning how to use a computer-based concept-mapping tool: Self-explaining examples helps. Computers in Human Behavior, 25 , — Hinds, P. Bothered by abstraction: The effect of expertise on knowledge transfer and subsequent novice performance.
0コメント