We arranged three different replicas triplets 2 m apart in natural habitat each was used once only. At each site, 10 triplets were placed 75 m apart in a line.
After collection, a person without knowledge of the replica's location scored attacks by noting any impressions corresponding to a predator 7. We tested whether predators avoid L. After 4 weeks, 25 5. We next investigated whether predators avoid L. After 2 weeks, 49 6. The mean proportion of ringed replicas attacked was significantly greater in allopatry 0.
Moreover, in sympatry, the proportion of ringed replicas attacked 0. Thus, predators avoid coral snake mimics only in sympatry with the model.
Consequently, selection to avoid ringed patterns should weaken with increasing latitude and elevation. As expected, the proportion of ringed replicas attacked increased gradually with latitude and elevation Fig. Horizontal dashed line: proportion of attacks on ringed replicas expected under randomness. Vertical dashed line: maximum latitude and elevation for coral snakes in North Carolina and Arizona, respectively.
Our results do not fully resolve why mimetic patterns occur where models are absent 6 , 9 , 10 , Possibly selection for mimicry in sympatry, coupled with gene flow between sympatric and allopatric populations 12 , maintains mimetic patterns in both regions. Nevertheless, our results verify the critical prediction of Batesian mimicry and demonstrate that the benefits of mimicry depend on abundance of the model. Bates, H. Article Google Scholar. Wallace, A. Fisher, R.
The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Waldbauer, G. Maynard Smith, J. Google Scholar. Greene, H. Science , — Brodie, E. Evolution 47 , — Smith, S. Conant, R. Stebbins, R. Palmer, W. King, R. BioScience 47 , — Download references.
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to David W. Reprints and Permissions. Pfennig, D. Frequency-dependent Batesian mimicry. Nature , Download citation. Issue Date : 15 March Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative.
Evolutionary Ecology This would give us an understanding as to when and where some Asian coral snakes lose and acquire their aposematic transverse bands and longitudinal stripes, which could be linked with crypsis. Behav Ecol — Article Google Scholar. Bohlin T, Tullberg BS, Merilaita S The effect of signal appearance and distance on detection risk in an aposematic butterfly larva Parnassius apollo.
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Evol Ecol — J Theor Biol — Obara Y A case of predation on Achalinus werneri by Sinomicrurus japonicus boettgeri. Pough FH Mimicry of vertebrates: are the rules different? Am Nat S67—S Oxford University Press, New York. Book Google Scholar. Herpetologica — Smith SM Innate recognition of coral snake pattern by a possible avian predator.
Stevens M Predator perception and the interrelation between different forms of protective coloration. Proc R Soc B — Stevens M, Merilaita S Defining disruptive coloration and distinguishing its functions. Philo Trans R Soc B — Stobbe N, Schaefer HM Enhancement of chromatic contrast increases predation risk for striped butterflies. Article PubMed Google Scholar. Current Herp — Tullberg BS, Merilaita S, Wiklund C Aposematism and crypsis combined as a result of distance dependence: Functional versatility of the colour pattern in the swallowtail butterfly larva.
Significance of dorsal zigzag pattern of European vipers. Ecol Evol — Biol Lett — Download references. We are grateful for helps to collect the reflectance spectral data of snakes to T.
Jono, Y. Kadota, T. Kaito, T. Otani, K. Terada, and A. Jono and T. Kaito also gave us good photographs. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Koji Mochida. KM participated in the design of the study, conducted all experiments, analyzed data, and wrote the manuscript. WYZ also carried out the plasticine replica experiments. MT participated in the design of the study and wrote the manuscript.
All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Coral snake replicas and control replicas on a natural background Left and plain white board right. Both sides of a replica were covered with fallen leaves. Figure S2. Table S1. Chromatic contrasts of the body coloration of snakes based on two types of avian visual systems UVS and VS. Reprints and Permissions. Mochida, K. The function of body coloration of the hai coral snake Sinomicrurus japonicus boettgeri.
Download citation. Received : 10 July Accepted : 02 February Published : 24 February Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all SpringerOpen articles Search. Download PDF. Abstract Background Prey animals often protect themselves from visual hunting predators via their body coloration, which encompasses various visual effects.
Results First, plasticine replica experiments were conducted to assess whether natural avian predators avoid the color pattern of S. Conclusions These results imply that the body coloration of S.
Background Animals can protect themselves from visual hunting predators using their body coloration.
Figure 1. Full size image. Methods Plasticine replica experiment We conducted plasticine replica experiments using natural avian predators in the mountain forests of Okinawajima Island, Ryukyu Archipelago, Japan. Color analysis The chromatic contrasts between the color elements of the snake body and background objects, and between the color elements within a snake body in S. Results In 25 of replica pairs, replicas were either attacked by birds 16 replicas or missing 26 replicas.
Figure 2. Figure 3. Discussion The plasticine replica experiments showed that the avian predators did not avoid attacking the coral snake replicas or the controls. Conclusion Our result implies that the body coloration of S. Herpetologica — Google Scholar Smith SM Innate recognition of coral snake pattern by a possible avian predator. Current Herp — Article Google Scholar Tullberg BS, Merilaita S, Wiklund C Aposematism and crypsis combined as a result of distance dependence: Functional versatility of the colour pattern in the swallowtail butterfly larva.
View author publications. Additional information Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Additional file. Additional file 1: Figure S1.
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